Acid-Base Buffers

CHEMICAL REACTIONS: ACID-BASE BUFFERS Short Overview Acids and bases represent two of the most common classes of compounds. Many studies have been done on these compounds, and their reactions are very important. Perhaps the most important reaction is the one in which an acid and base are combined, resulting in the formation of water (in aqueous solution) and a salt; this reaction is called neutralization. A buffer solution is a solution that contains both an acid and a salt containing the conjugate base anion in sufficient concentrations so as to maintain a relatively constant pH when either acid or base is added.In this experiment you will prepare a buffer solution and observe its behavior when mixed both with an acid and a base. You will also compare the behavior with that of solutions containing only the acid. Theory In his theory of ionization in the 1880’s, Svante Arrhenius defined acids are substances which form H+ and bases as substances which form OH- in water. He furt her defined a salt as a substance other than an acid or base which forms ions in aqueous solution. Such substances are thus capable of producing an electric current and are called electrolytes.The amount of electricity produced is directly proportional to the concentration of ions in solution. With regard to electrolytes we have learned previously that strong acids and strong bases ionize completely, and are therefore strong electrolytes because they produce a large electric current. Soluble salts are the other type of strong electrolytes. We also learned that weak acids and weak bases ionize only partially in solution, producing smaller quantities of current; these substances are called weak electrolytes. Materials which do not produce an electric current are called nonelectrolytes.To complete our understanding, we concluded that strong electrolytes exist primarily as ions in solution, while weak electrolytes exist as both ions and molecules in solution. Nonelectrolytes must exist as polar molecules only in solution. While it is useful, the Arrhenius definition of acids and bases is limited to aqueous solutions. This may seem insignificant to a student in introductory chemistry or general chemistry, but it imposes restrictions for understanding more advanced topics. As such, we now introduce two additional definitions of acids and bases, which expand our understanding. | |Acid | |Base | | | | | | | |Arrhenius | |forms H+ in water | |forms OH- in water | |Bronsted-Lowry | |donates H+ (proton) to base | |accepts H+ (proton) from acid | |Lewis | |accepts electron pair from base | |donates electron pair to acid |The Bronsted-Lowry concept of acids and bases was introduced by Johannes Bronsted and Thomas Lowry in 1923, and led to an understanding of many proton transfer reactions observed to occur in both non-aqueous and aqueous solutions. Gilbert Newton Lewis quickly recognized that a substance which is a proton acceptor must also be one which contains an unshare d valence electron pair to accept the positive charge. He therefore proposed his own theory of acids and bases based upon electron transfer rather than proton transfer. The Lewis acid-base concept is the most general and allows us to understand reactions which may not involve proton transfer. However, the Bronsted-Lowry concept provides the simplest description of acid-base buffer solutions, and it is this one which we will utilize in further discussion.We will use the formula HA for an acid and B: for a base in our discussion. Accordingly, the reaction between an acid and base is described by [1]. HA + B: (:A- + BH+ [1] In the reaction above, the products which are produced are :A-. and BH+. :A- is called the conjugate base of HA because it has donated a proton (H+) to the base B: . Likewise, BH+ is the conjugate acid of B: since it has accepted the proton from HA. The substances HA and :A- are called a conjugate acid-base pair. Likewise, BH+ and B: are also a conjugate acid-base p air. Some common acid-base pairs are: H3O1+ / H2OH2O / OH1-HCl / Cl1- HNO3 / NO31-H2SO4 / HSO41-HSO41- / SO42-CH3COOH / CH3COO1-(acetate)NH41+ / NH3(ammonium) H2CO3 / HCO31-(bicarbonate)H2PO41- / HPO42- (phosphate) The first two pairs show that hydronium ion and hydroxide ion are the conjugate acid and base, respectively, of water. It is the relative concentration of these two ions that determine whether a solution is acidic ([H3O+] > [OH-]), basic ([H3O+] < [OH-]), or neutral ([H3O+] = [OH-]). To accomplish this, we measure the pH of the solution. A pH < 7 is acidic, pH >7 is alkaline (or basic), and pH = 7 is neutral. pH is defined by the equation pH = -log10 [H3O+]. An buffer solution must contain both a weak acid and a salt of its conjugate base.Since HCl, HNO3, and H2SO4 are all strong acids, these substances will ionize completely and their concentrations will be too insignificant to maintain constant pH values. On the other hand, a weak acid such as acetic acid, C H3COOH, only ionizes to a small extent, so the both the undissociated acid and its anion can exist in sufficient concentration in solution to maintain constant pH. When the acetic acid-sodium acetate buffer is prepared the following equilibrium is established. CH3COOH (aq) + H2O (l) ( H3O1+ + CH3COO1-[2] The equilibrium constant expression for the reaction is Ka = [pic]= 1. 75 x 10-5 . Therefore, pH = pKa + log10[pic]. [3] Equation [3] above is called the Henderson-Hasselbach equation.The equation shows that because the acetate/acetic acid ratio does not change significantly during most reactions, thus resulting in a relatively constant pH. When a strong base such as sodium hydroxide is added, the acetic acid in the buffer reacts with the hydroxide ion to produce additional acetate ion ([4]). When a strong acid such as HCl is added to the buffer, the acetate ion will react with the hydronium ion to produce additional acetic acid ([5]). CH3COOH (aq) + OH1- > CH3COO1- + H2O (l)[4] CH3 COO1- + + H3O1+ > CH3COOH (aq) + H2O (l)[5] The predominant effect of the reactions is that the concentration of H3O+ and OH- do not increase or decrease significantly during the reactions.However, continued addition of NaOH will eventually consume all of the acetic acid present in the buffer, resulting in a sharp rise in pH. Likewise, addition of a large quantity of HCl will consume all of the acetate ion in the buffer, causing the pH to drop sharply. The amount of strong acid or strong base that can be added to a given volume of a buffer system without a significant change in pH (( 1 unit) is known as the buffering capacity. A buffer system such as CH3COOH / CH3COO1- is representative of an acidic buffer, because the molecular component is a weak acid. On the other hand, a basic buffer solution would contain the acid salt of a weak base in addition to the weak base itself. The NH41+ / NH3 buffer is an example of a basic buffer.Biological systems use buffers to maintain ambient phy siological conditions. In this regard the bicarbonate and phosphate buffers listed earlier are the two most significant buffers of body fluids. (See the article â€Å"Chemistry and Life: Blood as a Buffered Solution† on page 669 of Chemistry: The Central Science, 9th Ed. , Brown, LeMay, & Bursten. For more background information, you should review chapter 16 â€Å"Acid-Base Equilibria† in Chemistry: The Central Science, 9th Ed. , . Exercise 1. Examination of the Buffer Properties of a Diprotic Acid Salt, Potassium Hydrogen Phthalate [pic][pic] potassium hydrogen phthalatephthalate A. Chemicals and ApparatusChemicals: Water Solids:potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHC8H4O4 , KHP, 204. 22 g/mole) Solutions: 0. 10 M HCl(aq) , 0. 10 M NaOH(aq) (from Acid-Base Titrations experiment), pH 7 buffer solutions Apparatus: Balances, beakers, burets, buret clamps, Erlenmeyer flasks, graduated cylinders, hot plate, pH meters, ring stands, volumetric pipets, pipet pumps, volumetric flask s Safety Equipment: goggles, gloves, hood. Objectives:In this experiment you will learn to: 1. prepare a 0. 10 M KHP solution from a solid and water 2. prepare a solution of the phthalate anion from 0. 10 M KHP and NaOH solutions 3. repare a buffer solution containing both the hydrogen phthalate and the phthalate ions 4. measure the pH of the buffer solution 5. measure the pH as HCl is added to the buffer solution 6. measure the pH as NaOH is added to the buffer solution 7. compare the buffer solution with both a strong acid and a weak acid B. Procedure Part I. Preparation of Solutions CAUTION: Use extreme caution while handling the burets, volumetric pipets, and volumetric flasks. (Student 1) 1. Obtain 250 mL of distilled water in a 400-mL beaker from the DW tap at the sink between the two hoods on the side wall. Add 3 teflon boiling chips to the water, and boil the water for five minutes on a hot plate set on medium high.This will drive off dissolved CO2 from the water which may i nterfere with the experiment. Allow the water to cool to room temperature. 2. Obtain a pH meter from the instructor. Remove the rubber tip from the electrode and place the electrode in a beaker containing 10 mL of pH 7 buffer. Soak the electrode in the buffer solution for five minutes to condition the electrode. Discard the buffer in the sink. 3. Refer to the instructions for using the pH meter. Standardize the meter to pH 7. 00 using a fresh sample of pH 7 buffer. (Student 2) 4. Obtain the following items from the instructor: 1 100-mL volumetric flask, with stopper 2 burets, 2 buret clamps, and 2 ring stands 2 10-mL volumetric pipets, and pipet pumpsAttach the buret clamp to the ring stand. 5. Clean the flask with soap and water, and rinse carefully with two 10-mL portions of distilled water. 6. Clean the burets with tap water, followed by two rinses with distilled water. Then place each buret in the buret clamp on the ring stand. Label one of the burets â€Å"NaOH† and the other one â€Å"HCl†. 7. Clean the pipets with tap water, followed by two rinses with distilled water. Label one pipetâ€Å"A† and the other â€Å"B†. 8. Pour 125 mL of 0. 10 M NaOH from the hood into a 250-mL beaker. Label the beaker. Record the concentration on line 16 of your lab report. 9. Pour 80 mL of 0. 10 M HCl from the hood into a 150-mL beaker. Label the beaker. 10.If it is open, close the stopcock on the â€Å"NaOH† buret. Use a funnel to pour approximately 10 mL of 0. 10 M NaOH into the buret. Remove the buret from the buret clamp and roll the buret in your hands to allow the NaOH to coat the inside of the buret. Discard the rinse into a 30-mL beaker through the stopcock. 11. Return the buret to the buret clamp and close the stopcock. Now fill the buret with 0. 10 M NaOH to one inch above the 0-mL mark. Open the stopcock to drain the buret to 0. 0 mL in the 30-mL beaker, thus removing any air bubbles in the buret tip. Discard the rinse into th e sink. 12. Repeat steps 10 and 11 for the â€Å"HCl† buret, using 0. 0 M HCl instead of NaOH. The same 30-mL beaker can be used to collect the drain. (Student 1) Preparation of 0. 10 M KHP(aq) . 13. Using the electronic balance, obtain a sample of potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHC8H4O4, â€Å"KHP†) with a mass between 2. 0 g and 2. 1 g. Record the mass of the sample to three decimal places in your notebook. 14. Transfer the KHP sample to the 100-mL volumetric flask, and dissolve in approximately 40 mL of boiled distilled water. Then add boiled distilled water to the flask until the bottom of the meniscus is even with the mark on the neck of the flask. (Use an eyedropper from your desk to add the last few drops of water. ) 15.Stopper the flask, and turn it upside down three or four times to mix the solution totally. Transfer the KHP solution to a clean 250-mL beaker. Label the solution as you have been instructed. 16. Determine the concentration of the KHP solution. Pr eparation of 0. 025 M KHP / 0. 025 M Phthalate ion Buffer Solution. (Student 1) 17. Use pipet â€Å"A† to transfer 25. 0 mL of the 0. 10 M KHP solution prepared above into a clean 250-mL beaker. Record the volume on the lab report. 18. Use a graduated cylinder to add 25. 0 mL of boiled distilled water to the KHP. Mix the solution thoroughly. (Student 2) 19. Use pipet â€Å"A† to transfer 25. 0 mL of your 0. 10 M KHP solution into a clean 100-mL beaker.Record the volume on the lab report. 20. Read the volume of liquid in the buret to (0. 05 mL. You will need to estimate the last digit; remember, buret readings increase from top to bottom. Record the initial buret reading on the lab report. Make certain your eye level is even with the bottom of the meniscus. A piece of white paper behind the buret will assist you in reading the volume. 21. Place the beaker under the tip of the buret and add 25. 0 mL of 0. 10 M NaOH from the buret to the solution. Stir the solution as the NaOH is added to thoroughly mix the solution. Record the final buret reading to (0. 05 mL on the lab report. This solution which you just prepared contains 0. 50 M phthalate ion. 22. Refill the buret to the 0-mL mark with 0. 10 M NaOH. 23. Pour the phthalate ion solution which you prepared into the 250-mL beaker containing the KHP solution (Step 18, Student 1). Label the solution as â€Å"Buffer†. You have now prepared 100 mL of a buffer solution containing 0. 025 M potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP) and 0. 025 M potassium sodium phthalate (â€Å"phthalate ion†). Part II. Measurement of pH and Determination of Buffer Capacity. (Student 1) 1. Transfer 10. 0 mL of 0. 10 M HCl from the buret to a clean 150-mL beaker. Add 10. 0 mL of boiled distilled water to the beaker. Stir the mixture and measure the pH with the pH meter.Record the measurement on the lab report. 2. Place the beaker under the buret containing the 0. 10 M NaOH. Record the initial volume of NaOH in the bu ret to (0. 05 mL. Add 1. 0 mL of NaOH to the HCl solution. Stir the mixture and record the new volume of NaOH in the buret and pH on the lab report. 3. Add another 1. 0 mL of NaOH to the beaker. Stir and record the volume and pH on the lab report. Repeat this process until a total of 15 mL of NaOH has been added. 4. Discard the solution in the sink. Thoroughly clean the beaker with soap and water. Rinse the beaker twice with 5-mL portions of distilled water before proceeding to the next step. (Student 2) 5.Repeat steps 1 – 4 above using pipet â€Å"A† to transfer 10. 0 mL of 0. 10 M KHP solution to the beaker instead of 10. 0 mL of HCl. (Student 1) 6. Use pipet â€Å"B† to transfer 20. 0 mL of â€Å"Buffer† to a clean 150-mL beaker. Stir the solution and measure the pH with the pH meter. Record the measurement on the lab report. 7. Place the beaker under the buret containing the 0. 10 M NaOH. Record the initial volume of NaOH in the buret to (0. 05 mL. Ad d 1. 0 mL of NaOH to the buffer solution. Stir the mixture and record the new volume of NaOH in the buret and pH on the lab report. 8. Add another 1. 0 mL of NaOH to the beaker. Stir and record the volume and pH on the lab report.Repeat this process until a total of 10 mL of NaOH has been added. 9. Discard the solution in the sink. Thoroughly clean the beaker with soap and water. Rinse the beaker twice with 5-mL portions of distilled water before proceeding to the next step. (Student 2) 10. Repeat steps 6 – 9 above using pipet â€Å"B† to transfer 20. 0 mL of â€Å"Buffer† to the beaker. Titrate the buffer with 0. 10 M HCl instead of NaOH. C. Disposal All solutions may be discarded in the sink with plenty of running water. D. Data Analysis Use the graphing feature of Microsoft Excel or Vernier Graphical Analysis to create graphs of pH vs. mmol added for each of the four titrations.

How to Be a Good Headhunter

As headhunter, I earn my living by finding and evaluating job candidates for the benefit of my clients. After more than 5 years experiences in this job, now I understand what a good headhunter is and how to be. A good headhunter should be building a business based on reputation, relationships and trust — and on making a contribution to our professional community. You are in less of a rush, are more willing to take time to establish long term relationships, and seek to establish your credibility as much as to earn a buck. In order to be a good headhunter, you should have four features — knowledgeable, trustworthy, conscientious and effective. Knowledge As a good headhunter, you should share lots of knowledge and in doing so give candidates enough information to help them make a decision about whether they want to pursue the job (or recommend someone else). You should ask HR tons of valuable information about the company, about the job, the manager and his team, about why the job is open, and about the technology (if applicable), then share to candidates. You also should be able to tell candidates about the interview itself: how the manager evaluates candidates, how his team will be involved and how the selection process will play out. Most important, the good headhunter will be able to coach candidate in a way that will maximize candidates’ chances of winning an offer. Integrity As a trustworthy headhunter, you should be proud of your business and glad to talk about it, more over, you will demonstrate that you have good clients who respect you, and that you know the in's and out's of the industry you recruit in. Your success depends on clients’ and candidates’ trust, which means you should also reveal your trustworthiness by keeping your promises. You do call client or candidate when you promise to call; you do shortlist to client when you promise to. Conscientiousness As a good headhunter, you should try to locate and separate out the best qualified talent for your client company. You should never just ask for candidates resume without doing research by taking the time to ask candidates the tough, detailed questions that will reveal whether candidate fit the company, the manager, the job and the technology or not. Then write some objectively comments on their resume and shortlist to client. Effectiveness As a good headhunter, you should find the right candidate and fill the job in the shortest time. That's your business. To accomplish this, you will gain the respect of the client and candidate. And talking to just anyone isn't your job. Searching out the right candidates and talk with them, that will save your time and make your job efficient. It is obvious that a good headhunter should know client, position and candidate well, and try your best to right person to fill the right position. Meanwhile, you should also give the market information to HR and career suggestion to candidate. If you always do your job like that, success is not far away from you.

Doctrine of Social Responsibility

Doctrine of Social ResponsibilityThe doctrine of social responsibility holds that individuals and organizations should advance the interests of society at large. They can do this by abstaining from harmful actions and by performing socially beneficial acts. Although the doctrine of social responsibility applies to people and organizations, much of the discussion focuses on business and the extent to which social responsibility should influence business decisions.Examples of Social Responsibility?AnswerWhen individuals and organizations say they are motivated by social responsibility, they are referring to a feeling of ethical obligation to act in ways that benefit society.In recent years, the mantra of social responsibility has been taken up by small businesses, non-profits, and corporations alike. Some notable examples of corporate efforts at social responsibility include: Ben & Jerry's, which started the Ben & Jerry's Foundation and donates 7.5% of profits to charitable causes Kenn eth Cole, which has supported AIDS awareness and research Pedigree, which distributes grants and food to animal shelters.Each of these companies has recognized that success in business alone falls short of contributing to the societies they share in, and have taken the extra step to address their ethical obligations.On an individual level, everyone can engage in acts of social responsibility, every day. Consider the consequences of your actions on society as whole. Turn off lights and electronics when they aren't needed to conserve energy. Donate money to trustworthy organizations that work to further causes that interest you.VolunteerRemember, the smallest act of individual social responsibility can have a powerful impact when multiplied by an entire community.Voluntary Hazard EliminationCompanies involved with social responsibility often take action to voluntarily eliminate production practices that could cause harm for the public, regardless of whether they are required by law. F or example, a business could institute a hazard control program that includes steps to protect the public from exposure to hazardous substances through education and awareness. A plant that uses chemicals could implement a safety inspection checklist to guide staff in best practices when handling potentially dangerous substances and materials. A business that makes excessive noise and vibration could analyze the effects its work has on the environment by surveying local residents. The information received could be used to adjust activities and develop soundproofing to lessen public exposure to noise pollution. Community DevelopmentCompanies, businesses and corporations concerned with social responsibility align with appropriate institutions to create a better environment to live and work. For example, a corporation or business may set up a foundation to assist in learning or education for the public. This action will be viewed as an asset to all of the communities that it serves, wh ile developing a positive public profile. Related Reading: Role of Social Responsibility in Marketing PhilanthropyBusinesses involved in philanthropy make monetary contributions that provide aid to local charitable, educational and health-related organizations to assist under-served or impoverished communities. This action can assist people in acquiring marketable skills to reduce poverty, provide education and help the environment. For example, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation focuses on global initiatives for education, agriculture and health issues, donating computers to schools and funding work on vaccines to prevent polio and HIV/AIDS. Creating Shared ValueCorporate responsibility interests are often referred to as creating shared value or CSV, which is based upon the connection between corporate success and social well-being. Since a business needs a productive workforce to  function, health and education are key components to that equation. Profitable and successful bu sinesses must thrive so that society may develop and survive. An example of how CSV works could be a company-sponsored contest involving a project to improve the management and access of water used by a farming community, to foster public health. Social Education and AwarenessCompanies that engage in socially responsible investing use positioning to exert pressure on businesses to adopt socially responsible behavior themselves. To do this, they use media and Internet distribution to expose the potentially harmful activities of organizations. This creates an educational dialogue for the public by developing social community awareness. This kind of collective activism can be affective in reaching social education and awareness goals. Integrating a social awareness strategy into the business model can also aid companies in monitoring active compliance with ethical business standards and applicable laws. For other types of responsibility, see Responsibility (disambiguation). Social responsibility is an ethical theory that an entity, be it an organization or individual, has an obligation to act to benefit society at large. Social responsibility is a duty every individual has to perform so as to maintain a balance between the economy and the ecosystem. A trade-off always[citation needed] exists between economic development, in the material sense, and the welfare of the society and environment. Social responsibility means sustaining the equilibrium between the two. It pertains not only to business organizations but also to everyone whose any action impacts the environment. [1] This responsibility can be passive, by avoiding engaging in socially harmful acts, or active, by performing activities that directly advance social goals. Businesses can use ethical decision making to secure their businesses by making decisions that allow for government agencies to minimize their involvement with the corporation. For instance if a company follows the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) guidelines for emissions on dangerous pollutants and even goes an extra step to get involved in the community and address those concerns that the public might have; they would be less likely to have the EPA investigate them for environmental concerns. [3] â€Å"A significant element of current thinking about privacy, however, stresses â€Å"self-regulation† rather than market or government mechanisms for protecting personal information†. According to some experts, most rules and regulations are formed due to public outcry, which threatens profit maximization and therefore the well-being of the shareholder, and that if there is not outcry there often will be limited regulation. [5] Critics argue that Corporate social responsibility (CSR) distracts from the fundamental economic role of businesses; others argue that it is nothing more than superficial window-dressing; others argue that it is an attempt to pre-empt the role of governments as a watchdog over powerful corporations though there is no systematic evidence to support these criticisms. A significant number of studies have shown no negative influence on shareholder results from CSR but rather a slightly negative correlation with improved shareholder returns. [clarification needed][6] The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits by Milton Friedman The New York Times Magazine, September 13, 1970. Copyright @ 1970 by The New York Times Company. When I hear businessmen speak eloquently about the â€Å"social responsibilities of business in a free-enterprise system,† I am reminded of the wonderful line about the Frenchman who discovered at the age of 70 that he had been speaking prose all his life. The businessmen believe that they are defending free enterprise when they declaim that business is not concerned â€Å"merely† with profit but also with promoting desirable â€Å"social† ends; that business has a â€Å"social conscience† and takes seriously its responsibilities for providing employment, eliminating discrimination, avoiding pollution and whatever else may be the catchwords of the contemporary crop of reformers. In fact they are–or would be if they or anyone else took them seriously–preaching pure and unadulterated socialism. Businessmen who talk this way are unwitting puppets of the intellectual forces that have been undermining the basis of a free society these past decades. The discussions of the â€Å"social responsibilities of business† are notable for their analytical looseness and lack of rigor. What does it mean to say that â€Å"business† has responsibilities? Only people can have responsibilities. A corporation is an artificial person and in this sense may have artificial responsibilities, but â€Å"business† as a whole cannot be said to have responsibilities, even in this vague sense. The first step toward clarity in examining the doctrine of the social responsibility of business is to ask precisely what it implies for whom. Presumably, the individuals who are to be responsible are businessmen, which means individual proprietors or corporate executives. Most of the discussion of social responsibility is directed at corporations, so in what follows I shall mostly neglect the individual proprietors and speak of corporate executives. In a free-enterprise, private-property system, a corporate executive is an employee of the owners of the business. He has direct responsibility to his employers. That responsibility is to conduct the business in accordance with their desires, which generally will be to make as much money as possible while conforming to the basic rules of the society, both those embodied in law and those embodied in ethical custom. Of course, in some cases his employers may have a different objective. A group of persons might establish a corporation for an eleemosynary purpose–for example, a hospital or a school. The manager of such a corporation will not have money profit as his objective but the rendering of certain services. In either case, the key point is that, in his capacity as a corporate executive, the manager is the agent of the individuals who own the corporation or establish the eleemosynary institution, and his primary responsibility is to them. Needless to say, this does not mean that it is easy to judge how well he is performing his task. But at least the criterion of performance is straightforward, and the persons among whom a voluntary contractual arrangement exists are clearly defined. Of course, the corporate executive is also a person in his own right. As a person, he may have many other responsibilities that he recognizes or assumes voluntarily–to his family, his conscience, his feelings of charity, his church, his clubs, his city, his country. He ma}. feel impelled by these responsibilities to devote part of his income to causes he regards as worthy, to refuse to work for particular corporations, even to leave his job, for example, to join his country's armed forces. Ifwe wish, we may refer to some of these responsibilities as â€Å"social responsibilities. † But in these respects he is acting as a principal, not an agent; he is spending his own money or time or energy, not the money of his employers or the time or energy he has contracted to devote to their purposes. If these are â€Å"social responsibilities,† they are the social responsibilities of individuals, not of business. What does it mean to say that the corporate executive has a â€Å"social responsibility† in his capacity as businessman? If this statement is not pure rhetoric, it must mean that he is to act in some way that is not in the interest of his employers. For example, that he is to refrain from increasing the price of the product in order to contribute to the social objective of preventing inflation, even though a price in crease would be in the best interests of the corporation. Or that he is to make expenditures on reducing pollution beyond the amount that is in the best interests of the corporation or that is required by law in order to contribute to the social objective of improving the environment. Or that, at the expense of corporate profits, he is to hire â€Å"hardcore† unemployed instead of better qualified available workmen to contribute to the social objective of reducing poverty. In each of these cases, the corporate executive would be spending someone else's money for a general social interest. Insofar as his actions in accord with his â€Å"social responsibility† reduce returns to stockholders, he is spending their money. Insofar as his actions raise the price to customers, he is spending the customers' money. Insofar as his actions lower the wages of some employees, he is spending their money. The stockholders or the customers or the employees could separately spend their own money on the particular action if they wished to do so. The executive is exercising a distinct â€Å"social responsibility,† rather than serving as an agent of the stockholders or the customers or the employees, only if he spends the money in a different way than they would have spent it. But if he does this, he is in effect imposing taxes, on the one hand, and deciding how the tax proceeds shall be spent, on the other. This process raises political questions on two levels: principle and consequences. On the level of political principle, the imposition of taxes and the expenditure of tax proceeds are governmental functions. We have established elaborate constitutional, parliamentary and judicial provisions to control these functions, to assure that taxes are imposed so far as possible in accordance with the preferences and desires of the public–after all, â€Å"taxation without representation† was one of the battle cries of the American Revolution. We have a system of checks and balances to separate the legislative function of imposing taxes and enacting expenditures from the executive function of collecting taxes and administering expenditure programs and from the judicial function of mediating disputes and interpreting the law. Here the businessman–self-selected or appointed directly or indirectly by stockholders–is to be simultaneously legislator, executive and, jurist. He is to decide whom to tax by how much and for what purpose, and he is to spend the proceeds–all this guided only by general exhortations from on high to restrain inflation, improve the environment, fight poverty and so on and on. The whole justification for permitting the corporate executive to be selected by the stockholders is that the executive is an agent serving the interests of his principal. This justification disappears when the corporate executive imposes taxes and spends the proceeds for â€Å"social† purposes. He becomes in effect a public employee, a civil servant, even though he remains in name an employee of a private enterprise. On grounds of political principle, it is intolerable that such civil servants–insofar as their actions in the name of social responsibility are real and not just window-dressing–should be selected as they are now. If they are to be civil servants, then they must be elected through a political process. If they are to impose taxes and make expenditures to foster â€Å"social† objectives, then political machinery must be set up to make the assessment of taxes and to determine through a political process the objectives to be served. This is the basic reason why the doctrine of â€Å"social responsibility† involves the acceptance of the socialist view that political mechanisms, not market mechanisms, are the appropriate way to determine the allocation of scarce resources to alternative uses. On the grounds of consequences, can the corporate executive in fact discharge his alleged â€Å"social responsibilities? † On the other hand, suppose he could get away with spending the stockholders' or customers' or employees' money. How is he to know how to spend it? He is told that he must contribute to fighting inflation. How is he to know what action of his will contribute to that end? He is presumably an expert in running his company–in producing a product or selling it or financing it. But nothing about his selection makes him an expert on inflation. Will his hold ing down the price of his product reduce inflationary pressure? Or, by leaving more spending power in the hands of his customers, simply divert it elsewhere? Or, by forcing him to produce less because of the lower price, will it simply contribute to shortages? Even if he could answer these questions, how much cost is he justified in imposing on his stockholders, customers and employees for this social purpose? What is his appropriate share and what is the appropriate share of others? And, whether he wants to or not, can he get away with spending his stockholders', customers' or employees' money? Will not the stockholders fire him? (Either the present ones or those who take over when his actions in the name of social responsibility have reduced the corporation's profits and the price of its stock. ) His customers and his employees can desert him for other producers and employers less scrupulous in exercising their social responsibilities. This facet of â€Å"social responsibility† doc trine is brought into sharp relief when the doctrine is used to justify wage restraint by trade unions. The conflict of interest is naked and clear when union officials are asked to subordinate the interest of their members to some more general purpose. If the union officials try to enforce wage restraint, the consequence is likely to be wildcat strikes, rank-and-file revolts and the emergence of strong competitors for their jobs. We thus have the ironic phenomenon that union leaders–at least in the U. S. –have objected to Government interference with the market far more consistently and courageously than have business leaders. The difficulty of exercising â€Å"social responsibility† illustrates, of course, the great virtue of private competitive enterprise–it forces people to be responsible for their own actions and makes it difficult for them to â€Å"exploit† other people for either selfish or unselfish purposes. They can do good–but only at their own expense. Many a reader who has followed the argument this far may be tempted to remonstrate that it is all well and good to speak of Government's having the responsibility to impose taxes and determine expenditures for such â€Å"social† purposes as controlling pollution or training the hard-core unemployed, but that the problems are too urgent to wait on the slow course of political processes, that the exercise of social responsibility by businessmen is a quicker and surer way to solve pressing current problems. Aside from the question of fact–I share Adam Smith's skepticism about the benefits that can be expected from â€Å"those who affected to trade for the public good†Ã¢â‚¬â€œthis argument must be rejected on grounds of principle. What it amounts to is an assertion that those who favor the taxes and expenditures in question have failed to persuade a majority of their fellow citizens to be of like mind and that they are seeking to attain by undemocratic procedures what they cannot attain by democratic procedures. In a free society, it is hard for â€Å"evil† people to do â€Å"evil,† especially since one man's good is another's evil. I have, for simplicity, concentrated on the special case of the corporate executive, except only for the brief digression on trade unions. But precisely the same argument applies to the newer phenomenon of calling upon stockholders to require corporations to exercise social responsibility (the recent G. M crusade for example). In most of these cases, what is in effect involved is some stockholders trying to get other stockholders (or customers or employees) to contribute against their will to â€Å"social† causes favored by the activists. Insofar as they succeed, they are again imposing taxes and spending the proceeds. The situation of the individual proprietor is somewhat different. If he acts to reduce the returns of his enterprise in order to exercise his â€Å"social responsibility,† he is spending his own money, not someone else's. If he wishes to spend his money on such purposes, that is his right, and I cannot see that there is any objection to his doing so. In the process, he, too, may impose costs on employees and customers. However, because he is far less likely than a large corporation or union to have monopolistic power, any such side effects will tend to be minor. Of course, in practice the doctrine of social responsibility is frequently a cloak for actions that are justified on other grounds rather than a reason for those actions. To illustrate, it may well be in the long run interest of a corporation that is a major employer in a small community to devote resources to providing amenities to that community or to improving its government. That may make it easier to attract desirable employees, it may reduce the wage bill or lessen losses from pilferage and sabotage or have other worthwhile effects. Or it may be that, given the laws about the deductibility of corporate charitable contributions, the stockholders can contribute more to charities they favor by having the corporation make the gift than by doing it themselves, since they can in that way contribute an amount that would otherwise have been paid as corporate taxes. In each of these–and many similar–cases, there is a strong temptation to rationalize these actions as an exercise of â€Å"social responsibility. † In the present climate of opinion, with its wide spread aversion to â€Å"capitalism,† â€Å"profits,† the â€Å"soulless corporation† and so on, this is one way for a corporation to generate goodwill as a by-product of expenditures that are entirely justified in its own self-interest. It would be inconsistent of me to call on corporate executives to refrain from this hypocritical window-dressing because it harms the foundations of a free society. That would be to call on them to exercise a â€Å"social responsibility†! If our institutions, and the attitudes of the public make it in their self-interest to cloak their actions in this way, I cannot summon much indignation to denounce them. At the same time, I can express admiration for those individual proprietors or owners of closely held corporations or stockholders of more broadly held corporations who disdain such tactics as approaching fraud. Whether blameworthy or not, the use of the cloak of social responsibility, and the nonsense spoken in its name by influential and prestigious businessmen, does clearly harm the foundations of a free society. I have been impressed time and again by the schizophrenic character of many businessmen. They are capable of being extremely farsighted and clearheaded in matters that are internal to their businesses. They are incredibly shortsighted and muddleheaded in matters that are outside their businesses but affect the possible survival of business in general. This shortsightedness is strikingly exemplified in the calls from many businessmen for wage and price guidelines or controls or income policies. There is nothing that could do more in a brief period to destroy a market system and replace it by a centrally controlled system than effective governmental control of prices and wages. The shortsightedness is also exemplified in speeches by businessmen on social responsibility. This may gain them kudos in the short run. But it helps to strengthen the already too prevalent view that the pursuit of profits is wicked and immoral and must be curbed and controlled by external forces. Once this view is adopted, the external forces that curb the market will not be the social consciences, however highly developed, of the pontificating executives; it will be the iron fist of Government bureaucrats. Here, as with price and wage controls, businessmen seem to me to reveal a suicidal impulse. The political principle that underlies the market mechanism is unanimity. In an ideal free market resting on private property, no individual can coerce any other, all cooperation is voluntary, all parties to such cooperation benefit or they need not participate. There are no values, no â€Å"social† responsibilities in any sense other than the shared values and responsibilities of individuals. Society is a collection of individuals and of the various groups they voluntarily form. The political principle that underlies the political mechanism is conformity. The individual must serve a more general social interest–whether that be determined by a church or a dictator or a majority. The individual may have a vote and say in what is to be done, but if he is overruled, he must conform. It is appropriate for some to require others to contribute to a general social purpose whether they wish to or not. Unfortunately, unanimity is not always feasible. There are some respects in which conformity appears unavoidable, so I do not see how one can avoid the use of the political mechanism altogether. But the doctrine of â€Å"social responsibility† taken seriously would extend the scope of the political mechanism to every human activity. It does not differ in philosophy from the most explicitly collectivist doctrine. It differs only by professing to believe that collectivist ends can be attained without collectivist means. That is why, in my bookCapitalism and Freedom, I have called it a â€Å"fundamentally subversive doctrine† in a free society, and have said that in such a society, â€Å"there is one and only one social responsibility of business–to use it resources and engage in activities designed to increase its profits so long as it stays within the rules of the game, which is to say, engages in open and free competition without deception or fraud. â€Å"

Just in Time (JIT) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Just in Time (JIT) - Essay Example The strategy can be applied in UAE also. Gorica Group can implement this in their organization but there are some difficulties that the organization can face to implement this strategy. Just in time is a famous concept introduced in Japan in 1950. This business concept has significant contributions in the domain of production strategy or manufacturing business. Before the advent of JIT big manufacturing or product based organizations across the world were facing significant difficulties to manage their inventories. Companies across the world were storing high amounts of inventories in their warehouses. Inventory related problems were eating into their profitability. It was a significant matter of concern for the organizations. Returns on investments were low and inventory carrying costs were high. Philosophy of JIT is simple but it has utter importance as far as the inventory management is concerned. After the Second World War, Toyota President raised his voice and asked the Japanese automobile industry to pull up their shocks to compete well with the American automobile industry. During that period, American automakers were manufacturing nine times higher than the Japanese counter parts. It was the time when Japanese people first came up with this idea. With the help of this essay JIT will be discussed. Here in this study JIT will be defined in an elaborate fashion. The paper will also discuss various fundamental techniques related with Just in Time. The essay will analyze whether the concept is successful in Japan or not. In addition to all these it will also try to find whether the concept can be implemented in UAE. The concept will also be discussed on the context of an organization. Methodology is an integral part of any research paper. Importance of methodology cannot be denied at all. Methodology brings proper structure to a report. It is the way or process through which information and data are collected.

Managed Care Overview Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Managed Care Overview - Assignment Example The members can change the providers by filling the form and submitting it to the HMO. IPA, on the contrary, provides assistance to HMO by way to legally contracting with physicians to provide their services to its members. PPO provides a network of physicians that is accessible to the HMOs or IPAs to connect with and charge a fee for it. POS is an upgraded plan that has elements of each of HMO, IPA and PPO. However, it is flexible as the members are allowed to use the services or move to another choice of service. PFFS is a combination of managed care and health insurance. They include a large number of physicians and hospitals and they are all paid for their services. The member however, has to choose the plan they want depending upon their needs and budget. HMO is more traditional and has set rules as it is based on Health Maintenance Organization Act of 1973. IPA and PPO both work as network providers to HMO members. POS and PFFS both are flexible plans in terms of budget plans to its members. The managed indemnity plan also now includes managed care in the shape of certifications to the admissions in non-emergency situations as well as utilization reviews. The patient can take a second opinion in case of doubt by informing the provider and making a formal request for it if it is included in the grievance policy (‘USAMCO’, 2013). The insurance card requires particulars of the applicant, any licenses or previous attachment with any provider, health related certifications and identity proofs through mail. In case a provider wants to quit the service of providing access to managed care to the members, it can under the HMO Act, 1973 file the related form and request for closing the provision of service (‘FAQ’, 2013). In PFFS, the providers make payment to physicians once the service has been provided. A formal letter detailing the problem that provider is not accepting the guidelines or

Clincial Psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Clincial Psychology - Essay Example In these changing and challenging situation psychologists have to develop their skills all the time. Clinical psychology is related to identifying and treating the problems/conflicts which people face. These conflicts may involve, emotional thinking, learning as well as social and sexual problems. The person practicing in the area of providing diagnostic, therapeutic and counseling services to an individual, a family, or a group is called clinical psychologists. In general, the psychologist associated with the word clinical helps people to achieve changes in life style and habit to correct health problems. Now being a professional associated with and committed to increase the scientific and professional knowledge of people's behavior to improve the condition of individuals & organization, they have to protect lots of information's about their clients. Now confidentiality is the key area, where psychologists, has to take care of. They have to take certain steps to prevent misuse of client data related to various tests and other relevant information's into the public domain. But bein g a professional not only providing therapeutic role they have to perform the duties of researcher educator, diagnostician, supervisor, consultant, administrator, social interventionist expert witness and may more. In providing may more services and exciting various roles often do the job professionally some ethical standards has to be formulated which can provide them the common set of principles and standards upon which psychologists build their professional and scientific work. To fulfill these requirements, American Psychological Association (APA) has formulated the Ethics code in 2002. It has been divided under ten major categories which are like some common issues like psychologists must take reasonable steps to minimize the misuse or misrepresentation; psychologists must adhere to ethical commitment first in case of conflict with law or regulations and try to resolve the conflict between law or rules governing legal authority with ethics; psychologist must stick to their ethi cs code in case of conflict between ethics and organizational demand or interest and to the extent feasible, resolve the conflict in a way that permits adherence to ethics code, psychologists must have the responsibility to resolve ethical violence and report these kind of violations to state or national committees on professional ethics or state licensing boards or appropriate institutional authorities and wherever possible cooperate in ethics investigations, proceedings and resulting requirements of the APA or any affiliated state psychological associations to which they belongs psychologists do not file or encourage any malaise or willful complaints but do not deny persons employment, advancement and admissions to academic or other programs, tenure or promotion, based solely upon their being subject of an ethics complaint. For clinical psychologists another area which is relevant and addressed for ethical standards is the competence. Psychologist must provide services, conduct re searches & teach within their areas of competencies. They must have adequate professional knowledge and understanding of the factors associated with age,

Automotive Industry Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Automotive Industry Marketing - Essay Example It is closely followed by General Motors and Ford as the second major players in the industry. On the industry relationship there is a close relationship between the different major players with cross ownership of different groups by same players. For example Porsche holds about 20percent ownership in Volkswagen group while Renault-Nissan alliances have different holding in the world. However Toyota remains the world largest vehicle manufacture group with more than 5 brands in the market. (Auto Industry, 2008) As such there has been increasing competition in the industry. This has been due to the changes that have been taking place in the market and the change in consumer preference of cars. The increasing awareness of the environmental impact of cars has been a major shift in the industry as consumers prefer cars which are more fuel efficient and environment friendly. This has seen a drop of sales in some of the leading car produced like the Ford and General Motor since they were not able to adapt to the demand by the consumers and consequently there was rise of Toyota which was seen as producing cares which were more environmental friendly. (Meiners, 2007) The increasing competition in the industry has seen the rise of intense advertisement which is all aimed at showing the customers how a certain brand is efficient and meets their demand. The trend has been to show consumers how efficient is their brands and how friendly they are to the environment. Communication strategy Three have been many strategies that have been used in the industry in order to reach out to the consumers. There has been increase in the advertisement as the consumer preference shift and at the same time in consideration of the changes that have been taking place in the market. The advertisements have been reflecting the efficient of the brand in their efforts to meet the demands by consumers and the demand of the environment. Due to the increasing rise of communication technology, the industry has been in the leading front to take the advantage and reach all customers. Therefore there has been increasing trend of increased consumption as players in the industry use all the available means of communication in order to reach the customer. Of particular target have been the increased use of internet and its related channels of communication like the U tube. However there has also been increased use of the bill boards and other Medias of communication like the mass media sign TV radio, news paper, magazines, and others. This has been in effort of reaching as many customers as one can and reaching the customer before the other brand reaches them. This has resulted to creation of very impressive and effective means of advertisement to the consumers. They are designed in such a way that they don't just pass the message to the customer but they also shows them an additional value that they can get from the brands. The aims of the advertisements in the industry as we have said is not only to inform the customer of the existence of a certain brand in the market but also to show them that the brand has an additional value compared to others. Let us evaluate some of the advertisements that we have collected. First all the advertisements clearly pass the massage that they are meant to communicate to the consumer. They are well designed in a way that they are appealing to the

He effect mass media's Female beauty ideal on female adolescents' Research Paper

He effect mass media's Female beauty ideal on female adolescents' self-perception - Research Paper Example The media exemplifies female beauty based on thinness and flawlessness – unrealistic and unattainable physical attributes for anyone, even the featured model(s). These images can have negative affects on female adolescents’ self-perception. Body image is central to adolescent girls’ self-definition because they have been lead to believe that appearance is an important basis for self-evaluation and for public evaluation (Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, &Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). Awareness of constant public evaluation and the internalization of the gaze of others lead young girls to self-monitor, and in turn judge their own appearance. (Advertising Educational Foundation Inc., 2003). Social comparison is another aspect that plays a significant role in female adolescents’ self-perception (Anderson et al., 2001). By comparing oneself to and attempting to fit such a stringent beauty ideal, female youth faces inevitable failure, resulting in body dissatisfaction, low s elf-esteem, and/or eating disorders (Heinberg, 1996; Rodin & Striegel-Moore, 1985; Thompson & Stice, 2001). Adolescents are vulnerable and easily influenced, and research demonstrates that adolescent females are directly affected by the stereotypes and thin images that depict female beauty in mainstream media. â€Å"Many adolescents are concerned with bodily characteristics and physical attractiveness, and the media is filled with people who exemplify a cultural ideal of beauty that is difficult for most adolescents to attain. For females, a critical part of this ideal is being thin† (Anderson et al., 2001). Exposure to these ideals and images has lead to distorted beliefs and definitions of beauty amongst young girls. One study shows female adolescents’ distorted description of the ideal girl, i.e., 5ft 7in., 100lb, size 5, with long blond hair and blue eyes (Nichter & Nichter, 1991). The problem with such a view is that adolescents often tend to relate themselves to it and attempt to change themselves accordingly. Previous studies have examined the negative effects that fashion magazines have on female adolescents. This study uses such literature to dive deeper into this problem, aiming to gather a better understanding of how time spent, repeated exposure, and both direct and indirect pressures from various media (TV, Internet, magazines) impacts self-perception amongst adolescent girls. Specifically focusing on girls’ ages 13-17, the goal of this study is to point out the effects the unrealistic female beauty ideal promoted by the mass media has on their self-esteem and body-esteem, given that adolescence is such an influential developmental stage. Literature Review Media or what is generally referred to as mass media is any form of communication that simultaneously reaches a large number of people, it is represented and not limited to TV, newspapers, magazines, films, books and billboards (Wimmer ). Given these multiple forms of media it has become possible to access a number of them at any given time. This explains why they have been so effective in influencing our culture, changing beliefs, tastes, interests and behavior (Biagi). It has become an important aspect in dictating what people consider as ideal. The most affected

Annual report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Annual report - Essay Example In effect, the expose elucidates the company’s 2010 report using economic principles leant in class. Joseph Oriel Eaton and Viggo Torbensen established a small machine shop in Bloomfield, New Jersey in 1911. The shop manufactured heavy-duty truck axles supplying them to the expanding automotive industry. In 1917 however, by which time production had soared to 33,000, Eaton sold the company to Republic Motor Truck Co., the largest truck maker in the country. Eaton appeared again in the industry in 1922 by buying back his original company from Republic Motor Truck Co. In this regard, the company became Eaton Axle and Spring Co. one year later. Efficaciously, the company weathered the Great Depression by acquiring several companies that were approaching bankruptcy. By the late 1930s, President Roosevelts New Deal program stimulated industrial growth. In effect, demand for products from Eaton Manufacturing Company--a name change registered in May 1932--increased slowly and steadily. Moreover, the United States engagement in World War II made Eaton the primary manufacturer of vehicle pa rts. In effect, the company produced a variety of items making its contributions to the war effort. Currently, Eaton Corporation is a diversified power management company with a workforce of over 70,000 people. In addition, the country operates in more than 50 countries and sells its products to almost 150 countries. This year marks a hundred years of the company’s operations (Eaton). In the year 2010, Eaton Corporation made sales worth $11.9 billion. Further, the net income attributable to the company’s common shareholders was valued at $929 million. The company’s total assets were $ 17.252 billion. On the other hand, the total current liabilities $3.233 billion while the total non-current liabilities $6.616 billion; in effect, the total liabilities were valued at $9,849 billion. Moreover, Eaton shareholders’

The History of the Noose Essay Example for Free

The History of the Noose Essay The origins of the noose, also known as the hangman’s knot, can be traced to both colonial America and England, and continues to be used today in some US states as well as other nations that still use hanging as a form of capital punishment. The uniqueness of the noose as compared to other forms of rope typing lies in its number of coils and the way it is done; most professionally done nooses have 6 to 8 coils, which can be adjusted depending on the purpose for which it is intended for. The notoriety of the noose however, lies not only in its use as a method of capital punishment. It has also been associated as a racial hate symbol, so far being used in the United States against African-Americans. This is in reference to the various forms of extermination performed against African-Americans in the rural South in the past. To address such, the use of nooses for the intention of perpetrating a hate crime, or using nooses as a racial hate symbol, was made illegal under U. S. law. Recently, there have been cases where the hanging of nooses was done at American universities in what many see may be a resurgence of the symbol. A widely known incident that recently happened was where six black teenagers got into a fight with six white teens over the hanging of nooses in the trees. The case was brought to court and is now known as the â€Å"Jena Six† affair. In totality, nooses can be said to be very significant to African-Americans, but not in a good sense. If anything, the noose represents a direct attack on their race, and the move to make it illegal was definitely a step in the right direction. Just as the noose gained its reputation with being a form of capital punishment, it too has become a racially charged symbol that continues to affect African-Americans today.

Problems n Listening for TESL Students

Problems n Listening for TESL Students Listening comprehension test is a part of the examination for the course English Proficiency for Teachers which every TESL students need to be enrolled in as well as to get a credit in as to be TESL graduate students. TESL students who are the English teachers to be in future need to have good listening skills in English in order to be able to teach effectively. Unfortunately, TESL students in university come across great difficulties during listening comprehension test, even after they have been going through the course English Proficiency for Teachers which helps in developing and improving their listening skills for 3 years. Introduction The study is an investigation into the problem in listening comprehension test in English among TESL students. This chapter is organized into five parts i.e the background to the problem, the statement of the problem, research questions, the significance of the study and the limitations of the study. The background problem will discuss the basic skills involved in listening comprehension. The statement of problem will identify the problems faces by TESL students in listening comprehension test in English. The significance of the study will discuss how the study can be of use, both to the TESL students and lecturers in view of improving skills of listening comprehension. Background The listening skill has to be taught to second language learners of English as it involves listening comprehension which is a complex skill. The listening skill involves much more than just hearing the sound of the words. Listening is an active process which we receive, that is to hear and understand what a speaker has spoken. Nevertheless, we do not remain passive while listening. We have to react to what we listen in order to comprehend the meaning of what is spoken. Background knowledge is important in order to acquire listening skills. It is the awareness towards the particular topics. Competent listeners make use of that to make expectations and add on their own judgments as they listen further. In addition, a student also has to gave a purpose before he begins to listen. TESL students face problems in listening comprehension test due to many factors. The aim of this study is to determine the major problems encountered. Real listening is an active process that has three basic steps: Hearing. Hearing just means listening enough to catch what the speaker is saying. For example, say you were listening to a report on zebras, and the speaker mentioned that no two are alike. If you can repeat the fact, then you have heard what has been said. Understanding. The next part of listening happens when you take what you have heard and understand it in your own way. Lets go back to that report on zebras. When you hear that no two are alike, think about what that might mean. You might think, Maybe this means that the pattern of stripes is different for each zebra. Judging. After you are sure you understand what the speaker has said, think about whether it makes sense. Do you believe what you have heard? You might think, How could the stripes to be different for every zebra? But then again, the fingerprints are different for every person. I think this seems believable. Selection of problem Things to include: a. Background b. Selection of problem c. Objectuves d. Research Question e. Significance of the study: why doing the scope of study? f. Limitations of the study g.Definitions of terms h. Research methodology: qualitative? survey? i. Subject/Sampling j. Intrumentation: questionaire? interview? focus group k. Procedure of data collection l. Benefit of the study Format for Writing Dissertation Proposals 1.ÂÂ  Title Page The title sheet should include the information ordinarily encountered on the title page of the dissertation except that the proposal should be labeled as a dissertation proposal, not as a dissertation. Because some computer compiled bibliographies include only the first five words of the title, the first five words should, therefore, contain a substantive description of the study. A subtitle may be included.ÂÂ   2.ÂÂ  Abstract The abstract is expected to be brief (not to exceed 350 words) and should summarize the following: Introduction, Statement of the Problem, Background of the Study, Research Questions or Hypotheses, and Methods and Procedures.ÂÂ   3.ÂÂ  Introduction This section introduces the reader to the domain of the study and provides a general overview of the circumstances, issues, and background leading up to the problem under investigation.ÂÂ   4.ÂÂ  Statement of the Problem The problem statement should identify briefly the state of uncertainty or dissatisfaction with present knowledge in the field. Then it should clearly and precisely identify the purpose of the study in terms of how it will help to advance our knowledge in that field.ÂÂ   5.ÂÂ  Background of the Study A doctoral dissertation is not intended to be an isolated undertaking but rather an inquiry which has an intended place in some larger body of knowledge. This section should include a review of the relevant theoretical and empirical works which provide a broad background, or a theoretical grounding to the study. In addition, candidates are required to demonstrate the link between their study and the body of knowledge in which the study is grounded.ÂÂ   6.ÂÂ  Research Questions or Hypotheses Research questions or hypotheses should be stated clearly. These should flow logically from the discussion of the Background of the Study and should be consistent with the Statement of the Problem.ÂÂ   7.ÂÂ  Methods and Procedures This section should indicate what type of study is being conducted, how the study will be conducted, what data or information will be used, how it will be obtained, what controls will be applied to ensure integrity, and what sampling techniques will be employed. Thus, the section should convey the appropriateness of the data/information for answering the research questions; and, most importantly, it should describe the techniques for analyzing the data with direct reference to the research questions or hypotheses. A complete description of the instruments or procedures to be used in gathering the data should be provided. All proposals are expected to include relevant information about the technical quality of these instruments or procedures. Any instruments/interview protocols developed by the researcher should accompany the proposal in an Appendix.ÂÂ   8.ÂÂ  Limitations Students are required to address clearly the shortcomings and/or weaknesses of the research which may impact the findings as well as the generalizability of these findings.ÂÂ